Walkable urban design needs to provide safe, healthy, and attractive spaces linking the transport nodes and right through the development [56]. Walkability has become the basis of the knowledge economy with its need for professional people to have face-to-face contact [[8], [57], [58]]. It is critical to assess therefore how the transport nodes could be optimised, along with the demand for management practice to improve the functionality of centres for human interaction and knowledge economy, adopting the principles of Human Centred Design [59]. While creating this healthy, attractive, human-centered spaces, a place-making approach [60] has emerged as a targeted method to examine the core elements of these processes, in particular the role of community-led processes and the role of the creative sector [61].

This walkability aspiration would not be possible unless the centre forms part of a high-quality transit corridor which provides access across the city. Such access is needed for people living in the centre catchment and also for those who live elsewhere and want to use the centre for work and services [8]. The importance of corridor access by transit as well as walkable access within a centre is a fundamental question for this research project. Rail stations in the past have been where walkable centres have emerged as they have been traditional places where walkability was possible. Similarly, tram lines in the past had walkable areas around tram stops. However, the world of car-based planning has meant that tram lines have been either removed or filled with competing cars and increasingly heavy rail stations are being built with parking close to stations and hence walkability is lost.

The resolution developed so far – through the SBEnrc project work with traffic engineers and urban designers – is to enable a transit urban fabric to develop where there is both corridor speed and nodal walkability. The two together can create a place of accessibility that is not car dependent. This requires corridor speeds of around 70 km/h with transit-way space that can enable such speeds, in addition to nodal speeds of around 30 km/h where traffic and space for cars are at a minimum and nodal walkability is maximised. This is not unlike how cities now function where they have quality transit along streets – with fast and slow sections – but it is not what is currently in traffic manuals, even those attempting to resolve issues of ‘place and movement’ [8].

To adopt a carbon neutral or carbon positive approach to achieve close to zero carbon as possible in both power and transport it is important to evaluate how innovations can be utilised as a part of centres [62]. This includes for example on-demand transportation ODT), Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), Autonomous Vehicles (AVs), Electric vehicles (EVs), in addition to smart buildings, building design/building diversity and building types and associated smart cities concepts. To optimise their value, provisioning for flexibility is needed to accommodate these changes. This includes changes in the renewable energy mix and solar passive, which are critical to providing sufficient solar power for the buildings, transit technologies, and local shared EVs. Various modelling techniques to optimise urban energy consumption have been developed using energy supply data and post-code information [63].

A three-step process is required to integrate carbon neutral approaches for urban development [64], comprising: 1) reducing energy wherever possible (i.e.: building and transport sector); 2) using renewable energy; and 3) offsetting greenhouse gas emissions. For example, in Sydney, (Australia) New South Wales, has brought in a Building and Sustainability Index (BASIX) program directing efforts to design houses that produce 40 per cent fewer greenhouse gas emissions, compared with an existing house. The programme targeted at reducing significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and water consumption [65]. Carbon-neutral strategies are beginning in Singapore. This city has demonstrated in international forums that its carbon dioxide per dollar of gross national product is gradually decreasing. Malmo (Sweden) on the other end claims that it has already become a carbon-neutral city and is inspiring other countries to benchmarks best practices in using renewable energy.

The implementation of solar energy in Barcelona has been demonstrated through targeted actions supported by government commitment and community engagement. An innovative solar law, called “Barcelona Ordinance on Application of Solar Thermal Energy Systems into the Buildings” or “Barcelona Solar Ordinance, supported action”. This requires all new buildings in Barcelona to have solar thermal water systems to cover 60 per cent of sanitary water heating needs [66]. This highlights the criticality of government commitment and community participation for changing the way energy is generated and used.

At the scale of country, Bhutan has formulated a Low Emission Development Strategy to decrease the emissions of their transport along with an augmented strategy for sustainable urban design and reduce air pollution. A Green Tax was imposed on imported vehicles encouraging consumers to purchase more hybrid vehicles with significantly low tax [67]. In addition to working to increase a greater public transport share (up to 30 per cent), Vietnam is improving energy efficiency and use of biofuels via lowered taxes for electric and hybrid vehicles [68]. These are clear examples of support through governance and policy formulation to promote a positive approach.

To ensure that a precinct will not be dominated by parking and by vehicles trying to access the transit service options for local access via walking, biking and local shared mobility shuttle vehicles need to be facilitated [69]. Within this context, new city shaping technologies can be used to promote local connectivity, shared mobility and modal diversity. Integration of transport modes which includes walking and cycling, seeking to minimise the amount of travel and value-creation should be a key focus. Enhanced value-creation can be achieved through connecting the clusters, through well-defined corridors, serviced by a quality high priority transit system and recognising that value-creation varies along the corridor as related to proximity to stations [70].

The public perception of shared goods has shifted placing a high importance on sharing bikes, cars, or rides on an on-demand basis [71]. This shared economy has gained popularity among many cities that are struggling with increased congestion and inner-city traffic. Cohen and Kietzmann [71] proposed a shared mobility business model to demonstrate the optimal relationship between service providers and local government. European cities are classic examples of laboratories for sustainable mobility through walking (Barcelona) [72], cycling (Amsterdam, Groningen, Copenhagen, Odense, Berlin, and Muenster) [73] and shared mobility services (Berlin and Paris) [74]. Within the shared mobility services examples, the use of clean energy technologies received special attention. For example, two public electric car services in Berlin (BeMobility) and Paris (Autolib) demonstrated how each initiative enables shaping the future vision of sustainable mobility and transform regional transport systems in specific ways through their performative impact as local transport policy tools. Building on ‘intermodality’ as the central vision of sustainable transport Berlin’s intermodal transport system incorporates electric cars as part of the BeMobility service [74].

The density and urban mix should be part of a local community engagement process to enable urban regeneration while fulfilling local needs and aspirations. For developers to evaluate how affordable higher-density housing can be a key part of the ‘people and place’ transformation, a deep appreciation of creating centres through liveable, community-oriented design will be required. Community-engaged planning process, diversity of property densification, evidenced-based financial modelling have been identified as key practices to promote urban mix to enable developers to create viable and integrated corridors [63]. It is also key to understanding the value uplift that captures the land value and positive externalities to ensure establishment of a context-based solution to creating a centre.

Density in activity centres has a clear link to urban productivity, as established through ‘The Triumph of the City’ [75] where it has been measured in a number of cities including Melbourne, Australia. This phenomenon of agglomeration economies [76] occurs as a result of “clustering of urban activities and jobs that require face-to-face interactions for the creativity and innovation related to urban productivity gains, particularly in the knowledge economy sector”. Within this context, agglomeration benefits such as economies that can be gained by the new density and mix of land uses that are enabled by this study can be accomplished. Such elasticities are assessed in many cities such as those developed in Australian cities [77].

Many low-income groups face challenges in finding housing options near central city locations where most jobs are typically found. It has been increasingly identified that housing cost can have impacts on limiting access to people and diminishing income in labour market and thus resulting in low levels of productivity [78].

There should be a clear goal of providing affordable and social housing along the corridor with particular goals for each station precinct. To achieve those goals, it is critical to assess how affordable higher-density housing can be a key part of the ‘people and place’ transformation of centres through liveable, community-oriented design. Inclusion of diverse housing products, the inclusion of social housing, and diversity of property products are therefore critical aspects to promote property affordability. Within this milieu, it is imperative to strike the right balance between appropriate quality, sustainability, and safety standards and responsiveness to housing supply and affordability. Previous research presents local [78] and global [79] evidence of national-level policies to support affordable and social housing.

The sustainable design embraces societal, economic and environmental principles, although conventionally landscape designers are brought into project works late, and with minimal scope or budget to create design solutions that could be considered ‘nature-loving’ (biophilic) or biodiverse. Participation in the design process especially in landscape architecture and design is critical [80], to ensure solutions are community-oriented and sympathetic to local environmental attributes.

Within this context, biophilic design and water sensitive design principles should be required to be part of all buildings and across the precinct. Creating a nature-oriented space to promote a diverse, sustainable, and healthy ecosystem that contributes to local biodiversity will also have an impact on the health and wellbeing of our community. This was elaborated in the Urban Ecology and Biodiversity Strategy in the City of Melbourne [81]. To create better people-friendly and place-based urban spaces that are not affected by excessive traffic nature-oriented spaces have emerged as a targeted practice adopted by many cities over the world. With the emergence of sustainable urban planning, the idea of sustainable cities can be characterized by high density, mixed land use, and attractive green infrastructure. This has become a desirable urban form on a global scale [82].

Urban greening, including urban gardening, has a great contribution in creating nature orientated places while offering benefits such as shade and urban cooling [83]. For example, Singapore demonstrates nature-oriented urban planning efforts weaving nature throughout—which includes plant life, in the form gardens, green roofs, cascading vertical gardens, and verdant walls. The policies and capacities both requires and enables this form of global cities and centres to be rapidly and constantly reworked while embedding nature-oriented spaces [84].

The need for an inclusive and integrative design process that focuses on a place-based outcome is the final principle that needs to guide all planning and design. There is a range of processes that have been used over time but in recent periods, there has been an emphasis on City Deals [5] that integrate the physical planning processes, the human-oriented planning processes, and the financial planning processes. The guidelines of a partnership like a City Deal should be established with core functions involving planning strategy, planning controls, partnership development, and investment mechanisms. The need for a single state agency to provide the integrative process within the guidelines of a City Deal should be established but with core functions involving design, density/mix, and financing.

To examine partnership models for delivering transformation of centres, particularly the provision of private funding based on value creation/ capture approaches are critical for integrated partnerships. The governance process should identify the most appropriate procurement and delivery models, as well as statutory requirements, including a review of what powers local governments do have and recommend what extra powers might be useful. Key practices such as upfront and Integrative whole of agency approaches, regular and iterative consultation, and harnessing existing incentive/schemes are key success factors for effective integrated planning processes [85]. By overcoming institutional barriers related to cross-agency collaboration, governments must integrate transport and land use planning to realize integrated developments to enable people to walk or use transit between mixed-use complexes to satisfy daily needs [86].

To support each of these principles it is important to establish the most appropriate transit corridor governance arrangement that harnesses the best outcomes through urban re-shaping opportunities. A critical starting point is who is presently responsible for the preferred alignment and if there is a need for any shift in the governance of the alignment and the associated urban development opportunities presented by the introduction of trackless tram stations. Therefore, it is critical to identify what structure is best able to deliver such a project. For example, this could comprise a local government, a series of local governments, or a new integrated state agency with capability in both land management and transit with the capacity to attract the funding and financing or a facilitated unsolicited bid process.